Conditioned stimuli, or cues, are a major part of the most well-known theory of Pavlovian conditioning: classical conditioning.
A cue is an observed event that comes before a behavior or response. For example, if eating dinner is the behavior or response, then the observation of the clock showing 7:00 p.m. is the cue that marks the beginning of dinner.
Since cues are observed events, they can occur before a behavior or response in time. This makes them a powerful tool in classical conditioning.
By pairing an observable event with a behavior or response, one can induce that behavior or response by simply presenting the observable event. This is done through repeated trials over time.
However, there are other stimuli that can act as conditioned stimuli. In this article, we will discuss some of these stimuli and how they affect conditioned responses.
Operant conditioning
The theory of operant conditioning explains how animals (and humans) learn through repeated experiences.
It is a broader term that includes both classical and Skinnerian concepts. In general, operant conditioning refers to changes that occur in response to specific stimuli or circumstances.
For example, if you go to the gym every day, you are building the habit due to the reinforcing effect of going to the gym. You like what happens (you work out and feel good) so you keep going!
You are also more likely to go back tomorrow because you look forward to it. The fact that you go to the gym regularly makes it a reinforced behavior.
Stimulus control
A important concept in behavior analysis is stimulus control. This refers to when a person has control over the situations, circumstances, and events that influence their behavior.
For example, a smoker may have control over the fact that they purchase cigarettes, smoke them, and throw them away. But they may not have control over the cravings to smoke when emotional or under other circumstances.
This is because there are internal factors such as genetics, past experiences (e.g., trauma), and current situations (e.g., stress) that influence this behavior. The cigarette smoker may have tried to quit before but failed due to these internal factors. Thus, having more control over the external factors may help with smoking cessation.
Predictability
A key element of conditioning is predictability. The person being conditioned (the receiver) must be able to predict the stimulus that will result in the reward.
If the reward is unpredictable, then the receiver cannot develop the appropriate response. This is why it is important to have clear expectations for rewards.
A reward may be monetary, like a paycheck, or non-monetary, like praise or a promotion. It can also be something as simple as having your shoes off at the end of the work day.
Whatever it is, everyone who contributes to its delivery should be aware of it so that they can prepare themselves for it. This way, you can set up appropriate responses in those you are conditioning.
Constraints on behavior
A constraint on behavior is when you limit what someone can do. This can be as simple as telling someone not to do something, like telling a child not to throw a ball in the air.
Constraints can be physical, like telling someone to sit down, or they can be social, like telling someone not to say something offensive.
Constraints can also be internal, like deciding not to eat anything else or drink any other beverages besides water for the rest of the day.
Discipline is a form of internal constraint that many people struggle with. Discipline is when you internally decide to no longer respond in certain ways that are bad for you.
For example, if you are constantly spending money that you do not have, internally deciding to stop spending money is discipline.
Intrinsic motivation
A motivating stimulus that comes from within the person is called intrinsic motivation. When a person likes to do something because it is fun or enjoyable, without any external rewards, it is called intrinsic motivation.
For example, when someone likes to read for the enjoyment of reading and not for any other reason, such as earning a paycheck or some other reward, then reading is an intrinsic motivation.
In our everyday lives, we experience many things that decrease our desire to perform tasks. This can be due to fatigue, lack of interest, or lack of confidence in one’s ability to perform the task.
When individuals experience these things, they become less motivated to do anything. In order to help with this problem, professionals offer solutions to inspire interest and energy in tasks.
These solutions help people get back into the habit of performing tasks with intrinsic motivation.
Extrinsic motivation
A stimulus can be called extrinsic motivation when it is not inherent to the response.
For example, if you want your dog to learn how to sit, a treat is not required. You can simply have the dog sit and give a reward (a treat or a toy).
The reward is not part of the action itself, it is an external one. Thus, it is extrinsic motivation.
Extrinsic motivation can be useful when trying to train a dog, child, or any pet for that matter, but only if it is used in moderation. In fact, too much of it can lead to learning difficulties later on.
Too many treats early on during training can lead to the animal no longer wanting to work for them later on. This is because they have learned that no work is needed for a reward.
Shaping behavior
A very common application of fading stimuli is called shaping behavior. This is when you reward small, incremental changes in behavior, which lead to the desired final behavior.
For example, if you want your dog to sit down, you would not reward him immediately when he walks over to the spot he sits.
You would first have to train him to walk to the spot, then raise his head up, then sit slightly forward, and then reward him for sitting completely still.
By rewarding these small increments that lead up to the complete behavior, you are reinforcing the smaller steps and making it more likely that they will become the complete behavior in the future.
You can see this in action with your own pets or with professional pet trainers. They often have videos of their animals on their accounts that show how well they trained them using shaping behavior.
Spontaneous behavior
A behavior that an individual performs without being stimulated by anything in their environment is called spontaneous behavior.
For example, when an individual walks from one place to another without being directed to go anywhere or doing so for any purpose, this is spontaneous behavior.
It can be very difficult to understand what motivates an individual with PD to engage in spontaneous behavior. It is important to note that this is not random behavior and that there is probably a purpose or motivation behind it.
Spontaneous behavior can be very helpful in assessing the quality of life of an individual with PD. The ability to walk around and do things independently is a sign of good quality of life. The ability to do this spontaneously indicates that the individual has this ability even when not stimulated to do so.
There are ways to interrupt spontaneous behavior in individuals with PD through external stimulation. This can be problematic as it may cause the individual to lose some independence.
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